Tuesday, November 24, 2009

George Washington's 1789 Thanksgiving Proclamation


This historic proclamation was issued by George Washington during his first year as President. It sets aside Thursday, November 26 as "A Day of Publick Thanksgiving and Prayer."

George Washington's 1789 Thanksgiving Proclamation

Whereas
"it is the duty of all nations to acknowledge the providence of Almighty God, to obey His will, to be grateful for His benefits, and humbly to implore His protection and favor; and Whereas both Houses of Congress have, by their joint committee, requested me to "recommend to the people of the United States a day of public thanksgiving and prayer, to be observed by acknowledging with grateful hearts the many and signal favors of Almighty God, especially by affording them an opportunity peaceably to establish a form of government for their safety and happiness: "

"Now, therefore, I do recommend and assign Thursday, the 26th day of November next, to be devoted by the people of these States to the service of that great and glorious Being who is the beneficent author of all the good that was, that is, or that will be; that we may then all unite in rendering unto Him our sincere and humble thanks for His kind care and protection of the people of this country previous to their becoming a nation; for the signal and manifold mercies and the favorable interpositions of His providence in the course and conclusion of the late war; for the great degree of tranquility, union, and plenty which we have since enjoyed; for the peaceable and rational manner in which we have been enable to establish constitutions of government for our safety and happiness, and particularly the national one now lately instituted for the civil and religious liberty with which we are blessed, and the means we have of acquiring and diffusing useful knowledge; and, in general, for all the great and various favors which He has been pleased to confer upon us.

And also that we may then unite in most humbly offering our prayers and supplications to the great Lord and Ruler of Nations and beseech Him to pardon our national and other transgressions; to enable us all, whether in public or private stations, to perform our several and relative duties properly and punctually; to render our National Government a blessing to all the people by constantly being a Government of wise, just, and constitutional laws, discreetly and faithfully executed and obeyed; to protect and guide all sovereigns and nations (especially such as have shown kindness to us), and to bless them with good governments, peace, and concord; to promote the knowledge and practice of true religion and virtue, and the increase of science among them and us; and, generally to grant unto all mankind such a degree of temporal prosperity as He alone knows to be best.


Given under my hand, at the city of New York, the 3d day of October, A.D. 1789.





While there were Thanksgiving observances in America both before and after Washington's proclamation, this represents the first to be so designated by the new national government.

After their first harvest, the colonists of the Plymouth Plantation held a celebration of food and feasting in the fall of 1621. Indian chiefs Massassoit, Squanto and Samoset joined in the celebration with ninety of their men in the three-day event.

The first recorded Thanksgiving observance was held on June 29, 1671 at Charlestown, Massachusetts by proclamation of the town's governing council.

During the 1700s, it was common practice for individual colonies to observe days of thanksgiving throughout each year. A Thanksgiving Day two hundred years ago was a day set aside for prayer and fasting, not a day marked by plentiful food and drink as is today's custom. Later in the 18th century each of the states periodically would designate a day of thanksgiving in honor of a military victory, an adoption of a state constitution or an exceptionally bountiful crop.

Such a Thanksgiving Day celebration was held in December of 1777 by the colonies nationwide, commemorating the surrender of British General Burgoyne at Saratoga.

Later, on October 3, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln issued a proclamation calling for the observance of the fourth Tuesday of November as a national holiday.

In 1939, President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved the holiday to the third Thursday of November (to extend the Christmas shopping season and boost the economy). After a storm of protest, Roosevelt changed the holiday again in 1941 to the fourth Thursday in November, where it stands today.





Thursday, November 19, 2009

Women of the Revolution - YouTube



Here is a little YouTube video on Women and their impact on the American Revolution.


Women in The American Revolution

Spies in the American Revolution


During the Revolutionary War, women applied the traditional skills they learned as homemakers to espionage work. Both the British and American armies recruited housewives and young girls as cooks and maids. With their almost unrestricted access to soldiers' campsites, these women could eavesdrop on conversations about troop movements, leadership changes, and equipment shortages and deliveries without raising suspicion. Often at great peril, they secretly provided this critical intelligence data to military and civilian leaders. Some reported directly to General Washington, who came to highly value the information he received from these "agents in place." My personal favorite is the Abigail Adams whom I reinact for schools and civic organizations. Her letters were vital to her husband John Adams. She could tell him what was going on far from where his work was being done. Her correspondences often effected many of her husbands decision and those whom he worked closely with, including General Washington.

So as husbands, sons, brothers, fathers, and uncles tpically took up arms, these women served as the eyes and ears for military leaders, providing invaluable intelligence information throughout the war. Allied with either the British loyalist or American patriot cause, spy networks sprang up throughout the colonies. The one notable exception was Debra Sampson. Her story is for another blog.

A Woman Delivering Equipment at a Fort in 1782

More and more records are beginning to surface that suggest something of what these “patriots in petticoats” endured and contributed to the American Revolution. Aiding their cover were prevailing attitudes toward women by their male counterparts: females were considered innocent and non-threatening. As such, few commanders viewed these colonial homemakers as cause for concern, despite the fact that they were using women as secret agents to gather vital intelligence for their own armies. This however did not stop the brutality these women suffered under the hands of the British. Sexual Assault has always been a part of warfare and our patriot women were often the victims of this crime.

Espionage and counterespionage were as commonplace during the 18th century as they were in the 20th century during the Cold War and even today. During the Revolutionary War, spies for both England and America obtained and transmitted information about troop movement, supplies, fortifications, and political maneuvers. Loyalists in America (or Tories as they were often called) were happy to provide secret information to the Crown. Even Benjamin Franklin's son William, who was a loyalist, spied on his own father and reported the elder Franklin's activities to the British authorities.


In 1775, the Second Continental Congress created the Committee of Secret Correspondence, which was charged with gathering intelligence and "corresponding with our friends in Great Britain and other parts of the world" to gain information that would be helpful to the American cause and to forge alliances with foreign countries. Benjamin Franklin, who supervised the Committee's work, worked closely with General George Washington, interpreting and directing foreign and military intelligence activities.

Even before setting up the Committee of Secret Correspondence, the Second Continental Congress had created a Secret Committee by a resolution on September 18, 1775. The Committee was given wide powers and large sums of money to obtain military supplies in secret, and was charged with distributing supplies and selling gunpowder to privateers chartered by the Continental Congress. The Committee also took over and administered the secret contracts for arms and gunpowder previously negotiated by certain members of the Congress without the formal sanction of that body.

The Secret Committee employed agents overseas, and gathered intelligence about Tory secret ammunition stores and arranged to seize them. They sent missions to plunder British supplies in the southern colonies, arranged the purchase of military stores through intermediaries so as to conceal the fact that the Continental Congress was the true purchaser, used foreign flags to protect its vessels from the British fleet.

On June 5, 1776, the Congress appointed John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Edward Rutledge, James Wilson, and Robert Livingston "to consider what is proper to be done with persons giving intelligence to the enemy or supplying them with provisions." The same Committee was charged with revising the Articles of War in regard to espionage directed against the patriot forces. There was no civilian espionage act, and military law did not provide punishment severe enough to afford a deterrent, in the judgment of Washington and other Patriot leaders. On November 7, 1775, the Continental Congress added the death penalty for espionage to the Articles of War.

Methods of Espionage
Like modern secret agents, American and British spies during the American Revolution used a number of methods for hiding and transmitting information, including invisible ink, secret codes, and blind drops. A secret code would be set up that used letters or numbers to stand for other words. In order to decode the messages, the recipient needed a key or code book.

Several kinds of invisible ink were used by both sides during the war. One type was activated with heat and others by various chemicals. The invisible message was usually written between the lines of another letter, which would appear to be totally innocent. Upon receipt, the reader would either heat the letter over a flame or put it into a chemical bath to reveal the hidden message.

Letters or messages would be left at a blind drop, which was a location that was agreed upon in advance, such as a park bench or hollow tree. The message would be left by one person to be picked up later by another. Sometimes messages would be cut into slivers and stored in the hollow stem of a quill. Hollow silver balls were also used to store and carry messages. Not much larger than a musket ball, these balls could be easily concealed, or even swallowed if the messenger were captured.
With the British capture of Philadelphia on September 26, 1777, and with the Continental Army opposing the invaders with declining numbers, General Washington needed immediate, first-hand intelligence of the enemy's intentions, motions, and condition. To supervise this vital work he sought for a man of intelligence and discretion, familiar with local inhabitants and locale, and who could be relied on to produce fresh, correct information by whatever direct or devious means were necessary. The General's choice fell on Major John Clark Jr. of Pennsylvania, Aide-de-Camp to Major General Nathaniel Greene.

Although Clark's assessments and information as chief of spies were not always exact (nor could they be expected to be in such a risky task), the correspondence between Washington and Clark reveals the exceeding pains and dangers experienced by Clark and his various spies to supply the Commander-in-Chief with the best advice possible.

George Washington was a skilled manager of intelligence. He utilized agents behind enemy lines, recruited both Tory and Patriot sources, interrogated travelers for intelligence information, and launched scores of agents on both intelligence and counterintelligence missions. Although he regularly urged all his officers to be more active in collecting intelligence, Washington relied chiefly on his aides and specially designated officers to assist him in conducting intelligence operations.

Probably the first Patriot organization created for counterintelligence purposes was the Committee for Detecting and Defeating Conspiracies. It was made up of a series of groups established in New York between June 1776 and January 1778 to collect intelligence, apprehend British spies and couriers, and examine suspected British sympathizers. In effect, there was created a "secret service" for New York which had the power to arrest, to convict, to grant bail or parole, and to jail or to deport.

Nathan Hale is probably the best known but least successful American agent in the War of Independence. After a crushing defeat at the Battle of Long Island, Washington called for a volunteer to spy on the British and report to the American command with details of future battle plans. Hale volunteered, but he had no training, no contacts in New York, and no channels of communication. He was captured behind enemy lines while trying to slip out of New York, was convicted as a spy and went to the gallows on September 22, 1776, where he said, "I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country."

The Setauket Spy Ring
While the British controlled New York City, there was much that the commander in chief needed to know: the sizes and numbers of vessels in the harbor and how they were protected; the number of men guarding the city, and how they were deployed; descriptions of forts and redoubts that had been built by the British; the state of the provisions, forage, and fuel to be attended to, as also the health and spirits of the army, navy, and City.''

The Setauket spy ring - also known as the Culper Ring - began its activities on a small scale in 1778, with Abraham Woodhull, alias Samuel Culper, doing much of the snooping in New York. The ring employed both men and women, and based its operations in New York and Long Island. Most members of the espionage group used their professions as cover, relying on customers and patrons from the British military to divulge information about British military operations voluntarily. Several members of the Culper Ring were caught by British occupation authorities, but the ring never stopped feeding information to American authorities during the war.

Anna Smith Strong
The spies in the Setauket Spy Ring included a Long Island woman who was a strong and ardent patriot. Anna Smith Strong devised a wash line signal system to identify for Abraham Woodhull the whereabouts of Caleb Brewster's Whaleboat, so that Woodhull could find him and pass along the messages meant for General Washington. To avoid detection by the British, Brewster had to hide his boat in six different places, each identified by a number.

Clothesline Signal System


Nancy Strong, as she was known by friends and neighbors, hung laundry on the clothesline in a code formation to direct Woodhull to the correct location. A black petticoat was the signal that Brewster was nearby, and the number of handkerchiefs scattered among the other garments on the line showed the meeting place. Using the most ordinary of personal items and improvising on the most ordinary of personal tasks, Nancy made an extraordinary contribution to the cause of freedom.

Lydia Darragh
Officers of the British forces occupying Philadelphia used a large upstairs room in the Darragh house for conferences. When they did, Mrs. Darragh would slip into an adjoining closet and take notes on the enemy's military plans. Her husband, William, would transcribe the intelligence in a form of shorthand on tiny slips of paper that Lydia would then position on a button mold before covering it with fabric. The message-bearing buttons were then sewn onto the coat of her fourteen-year-old son, John, who would then be sent to visit his elder brother, Lieutenant Charles Darragh, of the American forces outside the city. Charles would snip off the buttons and transcribe the shorthand notes into readable form for presentation to his officers.

Ann Bates
Ann Bates was a loyalist spy for the British forces. She was a teacher in Philadelphia, and began spying for the British sometime in 1778. She posed as a peddler, selling thread, needles, knives, and utensils to the American camp followers. In this manner, Bates traveled through rebel camps, counting the number of men and weapons, and meeting with other loyalist sympathizers in the American army. On May 12, 1780, Bates requested to leave Clinton's espionage ring and join her husband, a gun repairman with the British Army, in Charleston, South Carolina.

Agent 355
355 was the numeric substitution code designation used by the Setauket Spy Ring to represent the word woman. This agent was referred to simply as 355 to protect her work and life. She supplied timely and accurate information to General Washington, played an important role in counterintelligence missions that uncovered Benedict Arnold's treason, and facilitated the arrest of Major John André, head of England's Intelligence Operations in New York. Her true identity remains a mystery today.

Many other heroic Patriots gathered the intelligence that helped win the War of Independence, and their intelligence duties required many of them to pose as one of the enemy, incurring the hatred of family members and friends - some even having their property seized or burned, and their families driven from their homes. Many of them gave their lives to help establish America's freedom.

After the end of the Revolution, and the establishment of an independent United States government, most military and espionage institutions were dissolved. Until the outbreak of World War I in 1914, American intelligence agencies and services were exclusively wartime organizations, rapidly assembled in times of conflict, and dissolved in times of peace.


Truth be told, women fought right along the men in many occassions. They were known to follow the camps and cook, clean and nurse the soldiers. They also fired a cannon or two.

SOURCES
National Society Daughter of The American Revolution
Female Agents
Spy System 1777
World of Influence
The Setauket Spies
Intelligence Operations
The American Revolution
Organization of Intelligence
Washington's Eyes and Ears
Spy Letters and the Revolution
Intelligence in the Revolutionary War
Intelligence in the War of Independence
Revolutionary War Espionage and Intelligence



Sunday, October 18, 2009

Abigail Adams to John Adams



Abigail Adams wrote to John Adams on March 31, 1776

"I long to hear that you have declared an in dependency - and by the way, in the new Code of Laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make, I desire you would Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favorable to them than our ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the husbands. Remember all Men would be tyrants if they could. If particular attention is not paid to the Ladies, we are determined to foment a Rebellion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any laws in which we have no voice, or Representation."




Friday, October 16, 2009

Workshop: Anatomy of a DAR Genealogy Application/Supplemental



Workshop: Anatomy of an DAR Application/Supplemental

When: Saturday, October 24th, 2009
Time: 1:00-4:00 p.m.
Where: Smoky Hill Library

Address: 5430 S. Biscay Circle, Centennial, CO 80015.

Hunting for that elusive patriot in your ancestry? You know he (or she) is there, but you haven’t quite made the connection. Or maybe you’re not sure if your documentation will pass muster with the genealogists at DAR Headquarters. This is the workshop for you!

Whether you’re working on your initial application for membership in DAR, or toying with the idea of submitting a supplemental on another patriot in your lineage, you will benefit from attending this workshop.
To register or for more information, contact the webmaster.


Tuesday, October 13, 2009

This Day in History - October 13, 1775




When fighting broke out in 1775 the American colonists had no large gunboats, no naval cannon or shot, no warship construction experience, and no captains and crews with experience in multi-ship naval battles. In contrast the British navy had hundreds of large gunships, hundreds of experienced officers, excellent maps, could attack anywhere along the thousands of miles of America's ocean coastline and could deliver troops and firepower well inland via the hundreds of navigable rivers on the eastern seaboard. The U.S. responded to this challenge with an active program of building warships, retro-fitting merchant vessels for military duty, capturing British supply ships and warships, borrowing warships from France, and making an alliance with France (and through France drawing in Spain) that would secure cooperative use of naval power that was larger than Great Britain's.

Timeline to Creation of the U.S. Navy

On 1775 Sep 02: General George Washington commissioned Nicholson Broughton of Marblehead MA as captain of the Hannah, to lead eight schooners based in Massachusetts in what became known as "George Washington's Navy" The original schooners included the
. . . Hannah -- 78 tons and a crew of 43 (sailed Sept 5, ruined by grounding Oct 10)
. . . Harrison -- 64-tons, 4 guns (under Capt. William Coit of Norwich CT)
. . . Washington -- 160-tons, 10 guns, and a crew of 74

Their first mission was to intercept British cargo vessels supplying the British garrison in Boston, and during the 26 months in which this fleet was part of the Continental Army they captured 55 enemy ships. Ships of the Continental Army provided one of America�s greatest naval successes at the battle of Valcour Island in 1776, when a fleet commanded by Brigadier General Benedict Arnold delayed a British invasion from Canada so that they had to withdraw for the winter. This gave time for American strength to grow so that it could overwhelm the next invasion force in 1777 at Saratoga.

1775 Oct 13 is considered to be the birthday of the United States Navy, since this was the day that the Continental Congress ordered that two large vessels be fitted out with 10 cannon each. Note: From 1922 to 1946 Oct 27 was widely observed as Navy Day.

On 1775 December 13 the Continental Congress authorized the construction of three 74-gun ships-of-the-line and thirteen frigates for the Continental Navy. All thirteen frigates were constructed, but only one ship-of-the-line was completed. The Continental Navy later included the world's first military submarine. See Other Ships below.

On 1775 Dec 22 Congress commissioned

Commander-in-Chief: Esek Hopkins
Captains:

Dudley Saltonstall for the 24-gun frigate Alfred
Abraham Whipple for the 24-gun frigate Columbus
Nicholas Biddle for the 14-gun brig Andrew Doria
John Burrows Hopkins for the 14-gun brig Cabot
First Lieutenants: John Paul Jones, Rhodes Arnold, Eli Stansbury, Hoysted Hacker, Jonathan Pitcher
Second Lieutenants: Benjamin Seabury, Joseph Olney, Elisha Warner, Thomas Weaver, James McDougall
Third Lieutenants: John Fanning, Ezekiel Burroughs, Daniel Vaughan

Several states created state navies, and many American merchant ships added cannon and obtained letters of marque so that they could serve as privateers -- sailing the world's oceans and capturing British merchant ships, harrassing the smaller ships of the Royal Navy, and threatening British military supply lines

Source:
Navy: An Illustrated History: The U.S. Navy from 1775 to the 21st Century (Illustrated History (Zenith Press)) (Hardcover)by Chester G. Hearn
Chester G. Hearn (Author)








Tuesday, September 29, 2009

Seige of Yorktown - This Day in History


The Battle of Yorktown
It began on September 28th and was fought until October 19th, 1781.
It was the last major battle of the war.

Detail of the Siege of Yorktown (1781), a 1786 gouache painting by Louis-Nicholas van Blarenberghe. Blarenberghe was a professional painter of battle and campaign scenes for the French army. He executed his Yorktown paintings under the direct supervision of Berthier, a skilled draftsman and former member of Rochambeau's staff in America (1781-83).

When General Rochambeau met General Washington in Wethersfield, Connecticut on 22 May 1781 to determine their strategy against the British, they made plans to move against New York City, which was occupied by about 10,000 men under General Sir Henry Clinton, the commander-in-chief in North America.

Meanwhile, word had come through to Washington that the British under command of John Campbell had been totally defeated in West Florida at the Battle of Pensacola on May 10, 1781. General La Fayette in Virginia also informed Washington that Cornwallis had taken up a defensive position at Yorktown, Virginia, next to the York River. Cornwallis had been campaigning in the southern states. He had cut a wide swath, but his army of 7,000 were forced to give up their dominion of the South and retreat to Yorktown for supplies and reinforcement after an intense two-year campaign led by General Nathanael Greene, who winnowed down their numbers through application of the Fabian strategy. Under instructions from Clinton, Cornwallis moved the army to Yorktown in order to be extracted by the Royal Navy.

On 19 July 1781, while encamped at Dobbs Ferry, New York, Washington learned of the Virginia campaign of Cornwallis and wrote that “I am of Opinion, that under these circumstances, we ought to throw a sufficient Garrison into West Point; leave some Continental Troops and Militia to cover the Country contiguous to New York, and transport the Remainder (both French and American) to Virginia, should the Enemy still keep a Force there.”

On August 14, Washington received confirmation that French Admiral François de Grasse, stationed in the West Indies, was sailing with his fleet to the Chesapeake Bay.

British intelligence was poor, but there is some evidence that the British realized the Americans and the French were marching south to attack Cornwallis at Yorktown. A letter, known as the “Wethersfield Intercept,” was captured by the British on its way to the Comte de Rochambeau from the French ambassador to Congress. However, this letter was in a French military cipher, and by the time the British were able to understand its meaning, Washington and Rochambeau had already marched, and so its value was limited. Despite this, Sir Henry Clinton was to claim after the war that he had deciphered the letter earlier than had previously been claimed, and had been acting on the basis of its content.

On September 5, Lt. Gen. Charles Cornwallis still had a chance to retreat to Richmond and then south back into the Carolinas, but he did little more than probe Maj. Gen. Marquis de Lafayette's blocking forces. He was still expecting Lt. Gen. Henry Clinton to send his reinforcements from New York, so he was content to continue to fortify his positions at Yorktown and Gloucester. After the British loss in the Battle of the Chesapeake Capes (Second) , he French naval fleet blocked England's access to the Chesapeake Bay and the American-French land forces blocked a move inland. The British were now being trapped in the Yorktown area. With little or no access to the sea, Cornwallis could not be reinforced, resupplied, or withdrawn.

Yorktown rests on the northern border of a large peninsula formed by the James River on the south and the York River on the north. The town is on the southern shore of the York River, and Gloucester Point is on the opposite bank. Both positions are 35 miles inland, northwest of Cape Henry, and 15 miles east of Williamsburg. It was an important transshipment hub for Virginia. Between Yorktown and Gloucester Point, the York River was about 3/4 mile wide.

Cornwallis established a strong inner line of entrenchments around Yorktown supported by detached redoubts and other fortifications in an outer ring of defenses. The outer line encircled the main line from Yorktown Creek in the west and southeast all the way around to the south and back to Wormeley's Creek and Pond in the east and southeast. Four redoubts were placed along the outer line in the south, but they were to primarily guard the roads leading into town and were not connected to the inner line of trenches. To the northwest, there was a strong star-shaped redoubt that blocked access to town along the main road. The inner line was much stronger and contained interconnecting trenches, redoubts, and artillery batteries. Also, Cornwallis had 65 field pieces, including several 18-lb. guns removed from the British ships anchored off Yorktown's coast.



North of Yorktown on the other side of the York River was the small town of Gloucester on a spit of land called Gloucester Point. A fortified line to defend the area from a northerly assault was established. It consisted a single trench line with 4 redoubts and 3 batteries, and ran from east to west across the narrow base of the peninsula. Lt. Col. Banastre Tarleton and 700 men from his British Legion manned this line. In addition to the army, Cornwallis also had 800 sailors and 12 ships that had been trapped in the York River by the Frech navy.

On September 28, the combined Continental and French forces left Williamsburg at around 5:00 A.M. They moved to within a mile of Cornwallis' Yorktown defenses by dark. The seige of Yorktown had officially began. On the British right, Lt. Col. Robert Abercromby withdrew as the French Wing adavnced there, while Tarleton withdrew as the American Wing moved to the southeast of Yorktown.

Washington had the American-French army organized into 3 divisions for the siege:

1.Rochembeau commanded the 7,800-man French contingent. They occupied the left wing, or northwestern sector, of the siege line. It consisted of 3 infantry brigades, a heavy cavalry corps, and a large artillery corps.
2.The American troops formed the base of the right, or southern sector, with two wings of 8,845 troops. These were divided into 3 divisions. They were commanded by Brig. Gen. Benjamin Lincoln, and Maj. Gens. Marquis de Lafayette and Baron von Stueben. Col. Henry Knox was in command of the artillery, engineers, sappers and miners. Col. Stephen Moylan was in command of the cavalry.
3.The third division of 3,200 Virginia militiamen were commanded by Brig. Gens. George Weedon, Edward Stevens, and Robert Lawson. They occupied the southeastern sector, or far right wing of the siege line.

The siege line was initially established 2 miles below Yorktown in a giant arc, with the French on the west/right and the Americans on the south/center and east/right. Additionally, Washington dispatched 4 regiments, commanded by Compte Claude G. de Choisy to the northern side of the York River to lay siege to the British troops operating on Gloucester Point. There, Weedon's 1,500 Virginia militiamen, aided by 1,400 French troops under Duke de Lauzun, joined forces to bottle up the British.

On September 29, Washington inspected the British position while the army continued to surround Yorktown. Artillery and siege equipment and stores were also brought to the front. The Americans in the eastern sector began reconnoitering the area and a minor skirmish broke out at Wormeley Creek. The British fell back to their trenches and the Americans broke contact.

On September 30, Cornwallis received a message from Lt. Gen. Henry Clinton promising some reinforcements and the return of the British fleet to assist him. These reinforcements would be leaving New York on October 5. Convinced that he could hold out until then, Cornwallis abandoned 3 outposts on the outer line that had covered the southwest approach to Yorktown. He would concentrate his troops within the inner fortifications, maximizing the defenses with his limited forces. Washington then learned of this information shortly after it happened and had his men occupy the abandoned works.

Across the York River at Gloucester, Brig. Gen. George Weedon and his 1,500 Virginia militia had been opposing the British garrison commanded by Lt. Col. Thomas Dundas. A heavy skirmish occured west of the Fusilier's Redoubt between the British and French forces.

On October 1, de Choisy assumed allied command of these operations while 800 marines were detached to Gloucester as well.

On October 2, Tarleton's Legion arrived to support Dundas, bringing the British garrison's strength to nearly 1,000 men.

On October 3, Dundas was returning to camp after leading a foraging expedition when de Choisy pushed forward. Cavalry from Lauzon's Legion formed an advance for de Choisy, while Tarleton's cavarly formed a rear screen for the British. Tarleton was nearly captured when he was pinned under his horse, but some of his men rode in and saved him. He reassembled his men, but some American militia, commanded by John Mercer, held the allied line and Tarleton withdrew his men back into their defensive lines. He would not see any more action on the American continent. For the remainder of the campaign, de Choisy kept the British garrison at Gloucester pinned.

On October 6, the allied force commanded by Washington and de Rochambeau was ready to begin formal siege operations. While Comte de Saint-Simon's troops began a diversion on the left toward the Fusiliers Redoubt on the north side of Yorktown in the evening, engineers staked out the main operations. This diversion helped focus attention on that distant flank and away from the digging of the first parallel.



After dark, work parties began building trenches and redoubts. While Saint-Simon was shelled during the evening, On October 9, after the completions of the first parallel, the bombardment of Yorktown began with Saint-Simon firing the first shots at 3:00 P.M. This fire also managed to drive off many of the British ships anchored off Yorktown.

On October 10, 46 guns were in place and inflicted so much damage that Cornwallis was only able to return about 6 rounds an hour. A flag of truce appeared at noon. That evening, 3 or 4 ships were destroyed by the allied fire.

On October 11, a second siege line was begun. This line was about 750 yards long and was within musket and easy artillery range of the British main line. At dusk, digging was begun in preparation for an assault on Redoubts No. 9 and No. 10 on the southeast side of Yorktown, which was necessary to complete the second tighter parallel.

On October 12, at dawn, Cornwallis spotted the second siege line. He sent some of his force to engage the workers on the line. The British managed to drive the workers to the ground and temporarily brought the work to a halt.

On October 14, Lafayette was given responsibility for the capture of Redoubt No. 10 and he selected Jean-Joseph de Gimat to lead the assault, but Brig. Gen. Alexander Hamilton protested. Washington ruled in Hamilton's favor and Hamilton was to lead 400 men against Redoubt No. 10. Col. William Deux-Ponts led the assault on Redoubt No. 9 with 400 French grenadiers and chasseurs.

Saint-Simon and de Choisy began diversionary attacks on the Fuselier Redoubt and Gloucester at 6:30 P.M. Hamilton and Deux-Ponts moved forward at 8:00 P.M. After taking heavy losses, Deux-Ponts secured Redoubt No. 9 as the British and Hessian defenders surrendered. Meanwhile, Hamilton had quickly overrun Redoubt No. 10 with few casualties in only 10 minutes. The allies immediately consolidated their positions in anticipation of a British counterattack. However, Cornwallis did not counterattack, but massed all his artillery against the newly captured position. That night, the Allies began incorporating the two forts into the right wing of the second parallel. The batteries could now fire and hit any point within Yorktown.

On October 16, at about 4:00 A.M., Lt. Col. Robert Abercromby led 350 British troops on a sortie to spike allied guns now in position in the center of the second parallel. He was able to spike 4 guns after pretending to be an American detachment. Moving to another position along the parallel, the British were this time driven back to their lines by a French covering party. However, they had managed to spike 2 more guns, but the allies were able to get all the spiked guns back into action within 6 hours.

In the evening, Cornwallis ordered an evacuation of his troops to Gloucester Point. He decided to attempt a breakthrough and a march northward to New York. Bad weather, a lack of adequate transports, and being bombarded by the American-French force forced him to abort the effort. Cornwallis now knew that he was out of options.

On October 17, the Allies brought more than 100 guns into action for their heaviest bombardment yet. Cornwallis could no longer hold out for reinforcements from Clinton. Around 10:00 A.M., a parley was called for by the British. Washington gave Cornwallis 2 hours to submit his proposals, which were received by 4:30 P.M. that afternoon.

On October 18, during the morning, terms of surrender were negotiated with Dundas and Maj. Alexander Ross represented Cornwallis and Lt. Col. John Laurens and Noailles represented the allies.

On October 19 , the surrender document was delivered to Cornwallis. He was to sign and return it by 11:00 A.M. and the garrison was to march out at 2:00 P.M. to surrender. Sometime before noon, the document returned with Cornwallis' signature as well as Capt. Thomas Symonds, the highest ranking British naval officer present. Washington and Rochambeau as well as de Barras signed for the allies.

The terms of the surrender were honorable. The British were to march out with colors cased and drums playing a British or German march. The principal officers could return to Europe or go to a British-occupied American port city on parole. Officers were allowed to retain their side arms and all personnel kept their personal effects. Infantry at Gloucester could ground their arms there, while the cavalry including Simcoe and Tarleton were to proceed to the surrender field outside Yorktown. All troops would be marched to camps in Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania.

At 12:00 P.M., two detachments of 100 men each, one American and one French, occupied 2 British redoubts to the southeast of Yorktown, while the rest of the victorious army formed along both sides of the Hampton Road where the British Army would march to the surrender field, which was located about 1.5 miles south of Yorktown.

At 2:00 P.M., the British and Hessian defenders of Yorktown officially surrendered. The defeated troops marched down the road, supposedly to the tune of "The World Turned Upside." About 2,000 of the surrendered troops were sick or wounded and unable to march. However, 7,157 soldiers, 840 sailors, and 80 camp followers walked out.

The formal surrender ceremony has become a legend unto itself. Cornwallis was not present, but had remained at Yorktown claiming illness. He was represented by his second-in-command, Brig. Gen. Charles O'Hara. He first attempted to surrender to de Rochambeau, but he refused and pointed him to Washington. Washington's only reaction was to ask him to surrender to his own second-in-command, Lincoln. The British and German troops grounded their arms with some of the British soldiers obviously drunk. Washington did not witness the surrender proceedings, but remained at his post along the road a few hundred yards away. The British soldiers and sailors were sentenced as prisoners of war and sent to prison camps in Virginia and Pennsylvania.

The victory cemented Washington's legend as the father of the country in America, while the defeat sorely damaged Cornwallis more so than Clinton.

On October 27, Clinton had finally arrived at the Chesapeake Bay but discovered that the battle was over. It is improbable that Adm. William Graves would have been able to fight through the French fleet to even land Clinton's 7,000 strong relief force. Clinton returned to New York City and remained there until he was recalled to England in 1782.

_____________________________________________________________
ARTICLES of CAPITULATION

Settled between his Excellency General WASHINGTON, Commander in Chief of the combined Forces of America and France; his Excellency the Count de ROCHAMBEAU, Lieut. General of the armies of the King of France, Great Cross of the Royal and Military Order of St. Louis, commanding the auxiliary Troops of His Most Christian Majesty in America; and his Excellency the Count de GRASSE, Lieut. General of the naval Armies of His Most Christian Majesty, Commander of the Order of St. Louis, commanding in chief the naval Army of France in the Chesapeake, on the one Part

AND

The Right Hon. Earl CORNWALLIS, Lieut. General of his Britannic Majesty Forces, commanding the Garrisons of York and Gloucester; and THOMAS SYMONDS, Esq; commanding his Britannic Majesty naval Forces in York river in Virginia, on the other part.

•ARTICLE I. The garrisons of York and Gloucester, including the officers and seamen of his Britannic Majesty ships, as well as other mariners, to surrender themselves prisoners of war to the combined forces of America and France. The land troops to remain prisoners to the United States: The navy to the naval army of his Most Christian Majesty. Granted.
•ARTICLE II. The artillery, arms, accoutrements, military chest, and public stores, of every denomination, shall be delivered unimpaired, to the heads of departments, appointed to receive them. Granted.
•ARTICLE III. At 12 o’clock this day the two redoubts on the let flank of York to be delivered, the one to a detachment of American Infantry, the other to a detachment of French Grenadiers --- The garrison of York will match out to a place to be appointed, in front of the posts, at two precisely, with shouldered arms, colors cased and drums beating a British or German march --- they are then to ground their arms and return to their encampment, where they will remain until they are dispatched to the place of their destination --- Two works on the Gloucester side, will be delivered at one to detachments of French and American troops appointed to possess them --- The garrison will march out at 3 o’clock in the afternoon, the cavalry with their swords drawn, trumpets sounding, and the infantry in the manner prescribed for the garrison of York --- They are likewise to return to their encampment until they can be finally marched off. Granted.
•ARTICLE IV. Officers are to retain their side arms --- both officers and soldiers to keep their private property of every kind, and no part of their baggage or papers to be at any time subject to search or inspection --- The baggage and papers of officers and soldiers taken during the siege to be likewise preserved for them --- It is understood that any property obviously belonging to the inhabitants of these States, in the possession of the garrison, shall be subject to be reclaimed. Granted. •ARTICLE V. The soldiers to be kept in Virginia, Maryland or Pennsylvania, and as much by regiments as possible, and supplied with the same rations of provisions as are allowed to soldiers in the service of America: A field officer from each nation, viz. British, Anspach and Hessian, and other officers on parole, in proportion of one to fifty men, to be allowed to reside near their respective regiments, to visit them frequently and be witnesses of their treatment --- and that these officers may receive and deliver clothing and other necessaries for them, for which passports are to be granted when applied for. Granted.
•ARTICLE VI. The General --- Staff and other officers, not employed as mentioned in the above article, and who chose it, to be permitted to go on parole to Europe, to New York, or to any other American maritime ports at present in the possession of the British forces, at their own option; and proper vessels to be granted by the Count de Grasse, to carry them, under flags of truce, to New York within ten days from this date, if possible, and they to reside in a district to be agreed upon hereafter, till they embark. The officers of the civil department of the army and navy to be included in this article. Passports to go by land to be granted to those to whom vessels cannot be furnished. Granted.

•ARTICLE VII. Officers to be allowed to keep soldiers as servants, according to the common practice of the army --- Servants, not soldiers, are not t be considered as prisoners, and are to be allowed to attend their masters. --- Granted.

ART. VIII. The Bonetta sloop of war to be equipped and navigated by its present Captain and crew, and left entirely at the disposal of Lord Cornwallis, from the hour that the capitulation is signed, to receive an Aid de Camp to carry dispatches to Sir Henry Clinton, and such soldiers as he may think proper to send to New York, to be permitted to said without examination, when his dispatches are ready. --- His Lordship engaging on his part, that the ship shall be delivered to the order of the Count de Grasse, if she escapes the dangers of the seas --- that she shall not carry off any public stores --- any part of the crew that may be deficient on her return and the soldiers, passengers, to be accounted for on her delivery. Granted. ART. IX. The traders are to preserve their property, and to be allowed three months to dispose of or remove them --- and those traders are to be considered as prisoners of war.
•ANSWER. The traders will be allowed to dispose of their effects --- the allied army having the right of pre-emption. The traders to be considered as prisoners of war on parole.
•ARTICLE X. Natives or inhabitants of different parts of this country, at present in York and Gloucester, are not to be punished on account of having joined the British army.
•ANSWER This article cannot be assented to, being altogether of civil resort.
•ARTICLE XI. Proper hospitals to be furnished for the sick and wounded - they are to be attended by their own surgeons on parole, and they are to be furnished with medicines and stores from the American hospitals.
•ANSWER The hospital stores now in York and Gloucester shall be delivered for the use of the British sick and wounded. Passports will be granted for procuring them further supplies from New York, as occasion may require, and proper hospitals will be furnished for the reception of the sick and wounded of the two garrisons.
•ARTICLE XII. Wagons to be furnished to carry the baggage of the offices attending the soldiers, and the surgeons when traveling on account of the sick, attending the hospitals, at the public expense.
•ANSWER They will be furnished if possible.
•ARTICLE XIII. The shipping and boats in the two harbors, with all their stores, guns, tackling and apparel shall be delivered up in their present state to an officer of the navy appointed to take possession of them, previously unloading the private property, part of which had been on board for security during the siege. Granted.
•ARTICLE XIV. No article of the capitulation to be infringed, on pretext of reprisal, and if there be any doubtful expressions in it, they are to be interpreted according to the common meaning and acceptation of the words. Granted.
Done at York, in Virginia, this 19th day of October, 1781
.

Source(s) The United States Library of Congress
Picture Credits: Fraunces Tavern, New York City (top); State Capitol, Commonwealth of Virginia (second) Wilmington Society of the Fine Arts, Delaware Art Center

(Bibliography: Davis, Burke, The Campaign that Won America: The Story of Yorktown (1970); Fleming, Thomas J., Beat the Last Drum: The Siege of Yorktown, 1781 (1963); Selby, John, The Road to Yorktown (1976); Thayer, Theodore G., Yorktown, Campaign of Strategic Options (1975); Commager, Henry S., and Morris, Richard B., editors, The Spirit of 'Seventy Six (1967); McDowell, Bart, The Revolutionary War (1967).

Referenced Painting of Louis-Nicholas van Blarenberghe - Top Picture




Saturday, September 19, 2009

The First Battle of Saratoga - September 19, 1777




As it turns out, the Battle of Saratoga was the turning point in the Americans' War of Independence. Actually, there were two battles at Saratoga, New York. The first began with Gen. John Burgoyne's offensive on September 19, 1777, the second with the climactic phase of the fighting during the Battle of Bemis Heights on October 7, 1777.




(Click on Map to Enlarge)

This map contains much important and interesting detail relative to this historic military action. Look closely to see the artillery positioned in a park, as well as the bridge of boats used by Burgoyne's army in crossing the Hudson River from Fort Edward to Stillwater. Notice also the location of the corps of riflemen under Col. Morgan to the north of the theater of action. And at the far left...on the western perimeter...the headquarters command of American General Gates.

In the first Battle at Saratoga, generally referred to by historians as Freeman's Farm, the British lost two men for every one American casualty. In terms of ground gained, however, both sides fought to a draw. The second Battle, otherwise known as Bemis Heights, British losses were four to one. The rebels' victory was overwhelming.

After protracted negotiations, Burgoyne officially surrendered on October 17. He returned to England in disgrace, and was never given another command.

When news of the American victory reached Europe, France entered the war on the side of the patriots. Money and supplies flowed to the American cause, providing Washington's Continental Army with the support necessary to continue its fight against Great Britain.

Britain's loss at Saratoga proved disastrous, in that it signaled to the European powers that the rebels were capable of defeating the English on their own. More than any other single event, it would prove decisive in determining the eventual outcome of the War


The Second Battle of Saratoga
Above, is a view of the battle field of the second battle of Saratoga with the climactic phase of the fighting during the Battle of Bemis Heights on October 7, 1777.



When Did Women First Vote In The United States?






When we all think of voting, we think of the women in the picture to the left voting in 1920.


Did you know that New Jersey women voted in the 1790s?

Everyone knows that American women first got the vote in 1920 with the passage of the 19th Amendment. Right? You would be wrong. Some New Jersey women voted as early as 1776. Historians argue about just what Thomas Jefferson and his colleagues meant when they declared "that all men are created equal." Did the founders mean males only or were there some situations when "men" could mean all humans? What natural or political rights, in their view, did women possess? The unique case of women voters in New Jersey offers some clues.


The framers of New Jersey's first constitution in 1776 gave the vote to "all inhabitants of this colony, of full age, who are worth fifty pounds ... and have resided within the county ... for twelve months." The other twelve new states restricted voting to men. Although some have argued that this gender-neutral language was a mistake, most historians agree that the clear intention was to allow some women to vote. Because married women had no property in their own names and were assumed to be represented by their husbands' votes, only single women voted in New Jersey. But, in the 1790s and 1800s, large numbers of unmarried New Jersey women regularly participated in elections and spoke out on political issues.

Women fought in The American Revolution. Some also thought women should have the right to vote as well.

In 1807, the state's legislature ignored the constitution and restricted suffrage to white male citizens who paid taxes. This was largely a result of the Democratic-Republican Party's attempt to unify its factions for the 1808 presidential election. A faction within the party wanted to deny the vote to aliens and the non-tax-paying poor. The liberal faction within the party gave way on this, but also took the vote from women, who tended to vote for the Federalist Party. In this way, New Jersey's 30-year experiment with female suffrage ended-not mainly because of opposition to the idea of women voting, but for reasons of party politics. A renewed focus on the importance of women in the home (as opposed to the public realm) may also have been a factor in the change.


"Some historians have viewed the New Jersey episode as evidence that the founders entertained the possibility that women could have political rights. The emphasis on liberty and natural rights in the Revolutionary period brought previously excluded groups into the political process. For example, women took the lead in organizing boycotts of British goods in the disputes over colonial rights that led up to the Revolution. The writers of New Jersey's 1776 constitution took the natural rights sentiment further than other states were willing to go. Pretty clearly then, the idea of some women voting was considered one possibility among others in the Revolutionary era. By 1807, Revolutionary fervor was a distant memory, and New Jersey fell into line with the practice of the other states. What changes in American society led to a renewed push for women's voting rights around 1900?

To learn more, check out this book:

Judith Apter Klinghoffer and Lois Elkis, " 'The Petticoat Electors': Women's Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807," Journal of the Early Republic 12/2 (Summer 1992):159-93.




Tuesday, September 15, 2009

The United States Constitution



The National Archives Building in Washington D.C

Below is a fantastic link to the United States Government Archives web page. It is a beautiful site, wonderful in it's presentation, and a great resource for those who would like to read the Constitution and to learn more about this and related documents. Other documents include the Making of Charters, The Impact of Charters, The Declaration, The Bill of Rights and of course The Constitution. You are invited to take this fun and educational link.

View U.S. Documents at the Goverment Archives Here:


Hall of Documents

•The Declaration announced to the world on July 4, 1776, that thirteen British colonies in North America were leaving Great Britain to form a separate nation, called the United States of America. In justifying the revolution, the Declaration asserted a universal truth about human rights.

•The Constitution, drafted in 1787 after a hard-won victory in the War for Independence, codified the spirit of the Revolution into an ingenious practical scheme of government to promote the welfare of all its citizens.

•The Bill of Rights, added to the Constitution in 1791 as the first ten amendments, explicitly protected freedom of speech, of the press, of religion, and of assembly, among many other rights.




'Mrs. Abigail Adams' Service During Constitution Week



A Constitution Day program will be given at Timberline Elementary in Centennial Colorado. The children will be treated to a program involving questions and answers about the United States Constitution and the life of 'Mrs. Abigail Adams'. Mrs. Adams is portrayed by Christine McClintock.



Happy Constitution Week








Colorado and Company - Hosts Charlotte Hubbs, Colorado N.S.D.A.R. Regent



Colorado State Regent 2009-2011, Charlotte Hubbs


Our State Regent, Charlotte Hubbs, will be a guest on the TV show Colorado & Company airing live on Channel 9 KUSA-TV from 10:00-11:00 a.m. Thursday, September 17, 2009, Constitution Day!

She will be interviewed by Presenter, Denise Plante, as one of the guests regarding the DAR, Constitution Week and the DAR luncheon taking place that same day at 11:30 a.m. at the Denver Country Club featuring Judge, Colorado Court of Appeals, Stephen Carparelli.

Colorado & Company or "COCO" is a magazine-style show that airs live on Channel 9, KUSA-TV from 10-11am on weekdays. Some segments are commercially sponsored while others feature local community organizations, and entertainers, chefs, community leaders and perhaps even your neighbor!

Colorado & Company is the place to learn about our state's best companies, the services and products they offer and the people behind them. You'll see a variety of people who have made Colorado the best place to live in the country.

Presenter: Denise Plante is also the co-host of the KOSI 101.1 morning show. She's been in radio for 18 yrs, 11 of those years right here in Denver. Denise has won several radio awards and has been nominated for three Emmy awards, winning one in 2005 for Interviewer/Host. She has been the host for several national television commercial spots and two MTV projects. Denise was also the first Female in the nation in radio to use the Heil Pink Microphone during her show and on location, it benefits breast cancer through Susan G. Komen.

Piney Creek Chapter N.S.D.A.R, congratulates our State Regent, and joins her effort to promote the activities of the DAR to the citizens of Colorado.


Saturday, September 12, 2009

The Battle of Kings Mountain


The Battle of Kings Mountain was not an isolated action; it was the high spot of 1780 in the South. Most historians agree the Battle Of Kings Mountain in North Carolina was the turning point in the American Revolutionary War. The moment in time when the Patriots took the upper hand in force.

This battle in North Carolina, actually occurred on the 7th day of October, 1780, but the first brush with the Patriots came on September 12th, 1780 with a withdrawl to Kings Mountain. This later culminated in a fierce battle and resulted in the defeat of Lieutenant Colonel Ferguson, who commanded the Royal forces. Not one of his men escaping from the battle field. The thoroughness of this defeat to the English and the death of the brave and highly trusted leader, was by far the most serious blow to which the British forces operating in the Southern Provinces had been subjected. The immediate effect upon Cornwallis was to put an end, for the time being, to the further subjugation of the Province of North Carolina.

His contemplated advance from Charlotte Town to Salisbury was menaced by a new and unheard of enemy the men under Campbell, Shelby, Sevier, and others who came from the region of the mountains, and the back, waters that flow to the west; from places so remote and unknown to the British leaders as to be almost mythical. This avenging militia made necessary a hasty revision of Cornwallis's plans following Kings Mountain, which resulted in his immediate withdrawal to the South, and the concentration of his main army, detached posts, and flanking parties, into positions capable of rendering mutual assistance.


These hardy men of the Blue Ridge and Alleghenies, of deep religious convictions, were accustomed to the hardships and independence of a pioneer life, and in their mountain homes in the highlands and the backwaters they but seldom were concerned with affairs beyond their borders or interfered with by Crown or colony. When Ferguson approached their kingdom and threatened to invade their lands and lay waste their country with "fire and sword," and to "hang their leaders," he aroused their indignation and anger to such a degree that they determined to rid the country forever of this enemy, who menaced their independence and the safety of their homes and families. Had Cornwallis and his leaders known more about these mountain and backwater men, they would have carefully avoided all military and punitive measures which might tend to draw them from their mountain fastnesses to enroll amongst the enemies of the King.

The Battle of Kings Mountain was fought by men on both sides whose bravery should be a matter of pride to all posterity. The troops commanded by Ferguson were Americans, or persons who had come to the Provinces prior to the Revolution. His command consisted of about 125 picked officers and men, taken from several regular battalions raised in New York and New Jersey, and formed into a temporary Provincial Corps. These men were Loyalists, and they gave their services to the Crown with the same high sense of duty which prompted their brothers and neighbors to rebel against it. The Loyalist chose poorly and paid for it with their lives.

The willingness of the men to join the battle has been attributed to the fierce independent spirit of frontiersmen and to the provoked reaction of Ferguson's threat. In part that is true, after all these men had chosen to settle on Indian land without protection from the British to ensure their complete independence.
The reality of the situation: If the British won the war, their days of being Over Mountain Men would be over. If they were allowed to live, they would most certainly be removed from their home-places and shipped back east and possibly face extradition back to England. In truth, the Over Mountain Men were fighting for their right to live in a free land that was their very own.

When the Over Mountain Men, as they were called, met on September 25, 1780 where they were 1,000 men strong. The next day the march over the mountain begin. They soon learned Ferguson had fled after hearing of their approach. The leaders decided to pursue Ferguson as far as it was necessary to attack him and his troops. On October 7, 1780 the Patriots surrounded Ferguson and his troops who were staged on Kings Mountain.


Even though the Patriots had no military training, no orders, no uniforms or provisions, and no promise of pay, in a little more than an hour Ferguson and his troops were decimated by the Over Mountain Men. The frontiersmen were practiced at shooting moving targets as they hunted game to provide food for their families and the rifles of the Patriots made for easier and faster shooting than the muskets of Ferguson's troops.


A Mounument for Lieutenant Colonel Ferguson was placed by Americans in 1930.





Monday, September 7, 2009

The First Labor Day - The American Worker


The First Labor Day

The first Labor Day holiday was celebrated on Tuesday, September 5, 1882, in New York City, in accordance with the plans of the Central Labor Union. The Central Labor Union held its second Labor Day holiday just a year later, on September 5, 1883.

In 1884 the first Monday in September was selected as the holiday, as originally proposed, and the Central Labor Union urged similar organizations in other cities to follow the example of New York and celebrate a "workingmen's holiday" on that date. The idea spread with the growth of labor organizations, and in 1885 Labor Day was celebrated in many industrial centers of the country.

Labor Day Legislation

Through the years the nation gave increasing emphasis to Labor Day. The first governmental recognition came through municipal ordinances passed during 1885 and 1886. From them developed the movement to secure state legislation. The first state bill was introduced into the New York legislature, but the first to become law was passed by Oregon on February 2l, l887. During the year four more states -- Colorado, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and New York -- created the Labor Day holiday by legislative enactment. By the end of the decade Connecticut, Nebraska, and Pennsylvania had followed suit. By 1894, 23 other states had adopted the holiday in honor of workers, and on June 28 of that year, Congress passed an act making the first Monday in September of each year a legal holiday in the District of Columbia and the territories.

A Nationwide Holiday

The form that the observance and celebration of Labor Day should take were outlined in the first proposal of the holiday -- a street parade to exhibit to the public "the strength and esprit de corps of the trade and labor organizations" of the community, followed by a festival for the recreation and amusement of the workers and their families. This became the pattern for the celebrations of Labor Day. Speeches by prominent men and women were introduced later, as more emphasis was placed upon the economic and civic significance of the holiday. Still later, by a resolution of the American Federation of Labor convention of 1909, the Sunday preceding Labor Day was adopted as Labor Sunday and dedicated to the spiritual and educational aspects of the labor movement.

The character of the Labor Day celebration has undergone a change in recent years, especially in large industrial centers where mass displays and huge parades have proved a problem. This change, however, is more a shift in emphasis and medium of expression. Labor Day addresses by leading union officials, industrialists, educators, clerics and government officials are given wide coverage in newspapers, radio and television.

The vital force of labor added materially to the highest standard of living and the greatest production the world has ever known and has brought us closer to the realization of our traditional ideals of economic and political democracy. It is appropriate, therefore, that the nation pay tribute on Labor Day to the creator of so much of the nation's strength, freedom, and leadership.
Happy


To The American Worker!

To Learn More About Labor Day